- The impact of gender roles and values on behaviour.
The Cambodian Constitution states that men and women have equal rights, however many factors within Khmer culture would prove otherwise. Cambodian social structure is based on a hierarchal ordered society, and men are categorised as higher than women, with both genders expecting to adhere to different behavioural patterns. Cambodian values are strong in their desire for smooth interpersonal relationships, where confrontation is avoided and even negative situations are accepted, therefore women are expected to go about their daily lives undervalued and undermined by men, with no thoughts on confronting the unequal situation.
Within Cambodia, there is an analogy where women are compared to pieces of wool or cotton, and men are diamonds. The wool can be dirtied, never to regain its purity or cleanliness again, though the diamond, even if dropped in mud can be wiped clean and forgotten of any negativity or dirtiness imposed on it thus the same goes for males and females in Cambodia. Women who are sexually active outside of marriage, or perform any unrighteous or un-sacred acts are considered dirty, and cannot find a husband, nor a job. Women in Cambodia serve as a role model for children, especially daughters of a household, and women teach the daughters what she has been taught, and so on and so forth for generations on end. Women are to be quiet, naïve creatures, never being away from a member of her fathers household before her wedding, and are not expected to communicate with her future husband until the day of marriage. They are expected to move without a sound, while the rest of the family relies on them to clean, cook and deal with the family's finances. However, both females and males are respected and valued in Cambodian society, women expecting to emulate the 'apsara' from the Angkor Era of 802 - 1431 AD, meaning 'goddess'. This traditional gender role highlights women to be a gentle and soft spoken person; one that respects her parents and elders.
In many ways Khmer women have far more responsibilities than men, though are under appreciated. Behavioural roles of women are thus highlighted through the values of gender roles in Khmer society. When understanding gender roles and values on behaviour in marriage, it is interesting to look at the various roles the female must play to be a successful wife. She should first of all be his mother, caring and cooking for him and making sure he is happy, his older sister, protective, safe and a shoulder to lean on, his friend and his servant. With 23% of Khmer women being abused, females are prohibited to refrain from beating and are subject to endless silence, as confrontation is not acceptable, nor expected. Women are often blamed personally when beaten if they refuse to have sex with their husbands, and often rape or subject to unwanted sexual activities occurs due to the fear of domestic violence prevalent in Cambodian society. In Khmer marriage, a man is permitted to have affairs and mistresses, as the diamond can be wiped clean, though for a woman to perform this act would be treasonous, and could result in banishment and exile. Women must be careful around their husbands through being silent in all decision making and any issues that arise, while serving their every duty.
As Cambodia has a very hot and humid climate, physical activities outdoors are common, and children are raised to amuse themselves outdoors, a common behavioural trait that serves throughout their adult lives as their connection to nature is deep rooted since infancy. Women, however, are only permitted to perform any physical activity after sunset and out of sight, and are forbidden to engage in any contact sport.
Furthermore, as Cambodia is mainly a Buddhist country of Theravada Buddhism, women are devalued in this religion too, as their connection to the household and love of their families is seen as an attachment to the world, and thus not accepted by Buddhist monks. Women are expected to offer their sons to be trained as monks in temples however, and to offer food to the practicing monks.
Boys are taught in Cambodian society that their strength and power will reflect in their behaviour, and are thus expected to be fierce and strong, both mentally and physically, towards family members and within society. Portraying families wealth is important for boys to be able to create this appearance of strength in behaviour, and boys will often wear signs of materialistic wealth to portray this to society.
While Cambodian society and government was struggling to come to a stable political and economic level after the Khmer Rouge and the Pol Pot Regime, there has been little available time and energy to close gaps between gender inequality. Schooling for women has become available in recent years, therefore the literacy difference between gender's has decreased, however literacy rates are considerably lower for Khmer women with only 45% of women literate. Moreover, only 16% of 13 - 15 year old female's are enrolled in school, and 6% of working women are paid. This further portrays the values that women are to care for children, household and adhere to her husbands wishes. This is reflected in their behavioural attitudes of separating themselves from their husbands part of society, in which there is much hard work, socialising and travelling, opposed to their feminine life of being enclosed in a home.
Even in the political atmosphere, gender values are highly reflected in female behaviour due to the inability to gain seats and power in parliament, with only 2 out of 25 ministers being female during the 1990's, and in other parts of society, there are a miniscule 8 female judges out of 110 currently. Fortunately the Ministry of Women's Affair has set up a five year plan in order to combat both the conscious and unconscious inequality that has occurred between genders and thus impacted the behaviour in which women feel they are undervalued and unable to grow to their full potential in Cambodian society.
The Cambodian Constitution states that men and women have equal rights, however many factors within Khmer culture would prove otherwise. Cambodian social structure is based on a hierarchal ordered society, and men are categorised as higher than women, with both genders expecting to adhere to different behavioural patterns. Cambodian values are strong in their desire for smooth interpersonal relationships, where confrontation is avoided and even negative situations are accepted, therefore women are expected to go about their daily lives undervalued and undermined by men, with no thoughts on confronting the unequal situation.
Within Cambodia, there is an analogy where women are compared to pieces of wool or cotton, and men are diamonds. The wool can be dirtied, never to regain its purity or cleanliness again, though the diamond, even if dropped in mud can be wiped clean and forgotten of any negativity or dirtiness imposed on it thus the same goes for males and females in Cambodia. Women who are sexually active outside of marriage, or perform any unrighteous or un-sacred acts are considered dirty, and cannot find a husband, nor a job. Women in Cambodia serve as a role model for children, especially daughters of a household, and women teach the daughters what she has been taught, and so on and so forth for generations on end. Women are to be quiet, naïve creatures, never being away from a member of her fathers household before her wedding, and are not expected to communicate with her future husband until the day of marriage. They are expected to move without a sound, while the rest of the family relies on them to clean, cook and deal with the family's finances. However, both females and males are respected and valued in Cambodian society, women expecting to emulate the 'apsara' from the Angkor Era of 802 - 1431 AD, meaning 'goddess'. This traditional gender role highlights women to be a gentle and soft spoken person; one that respects her parents and elders.
In many ways Khmer women have far more responsibilities than men, though are under appreciated. Behavioural roles of women are thus highlighted through the values of gender roles in Khmer society. When understanding gender roles and values on behaviour in marriage, it is interesting to look at the various roles the female must play to be a successful wife. She should first of all be his mother, caring and cooking for him and making sure he is happy, his older sister, protective, safe and a shoulder to lean on, his friend and his servant. With 23% of Khmer women being abused, females are prohibited to refrain from beating and are subject to endless silence, as confrontation is not acceptable, nor expected. Women are often blamed personally when beaten if they refuse to have sex with their husbands, and often rape or subject to unwanted sexual activities occurs due to the fear of domestic violence prevalent in Cambodian society. In Khmer marriage, a man is permitted to have affairs and mistresses, as the diamond can be wiped clean, though for a woman to perform this act would be treasonous, and could result in banishment and exile. Women must be careful around their husbands through being silent in all decision making and any issues that arise, while serving their every duty.
As Cambodia has a very hot and humid climate, physical activities outdoors are common, and children are raised to amuse themselves outdoors, a common behavioural trait that serves throughout their adult lives as their connection to nature is deep rooted since infancy. Women, however, are only permitted to perform any physical activity after sunset and out of sight, and are forbidden to engage in any contact sport.
Furthermore, as Cambodia is mainly a Buddhist country of Theravada Buddhism, women are devalued in this religion too, as their connection to the household and love of their families is seen as an attachment to the world, and thus not accepted by Buddhist monks. Women are expected to offer their sons to be trained as monks in temples however, and to offer food to the practicing monks.
Boys are taught in Cambodian society that their strength and power will reflect in their behaviour, and are thus expected to be fierce and strong, both mentally and physically, towards family members and within society. Portraying families wealth is important for boys to be able to create this appearance of strength in behaviour, and boys will often wear signs of materialistic wealth to portray this to society.
While Cambodian society and government was struggling to come to a stable political and economic level after the Khmer Rouge and the Pol Pot Regime, there has been little available time and energy to close gaps between gender inequality. Schooling for women has become available in recent years, therefore the literacy difference between gender's has decreased, however literacy rates are considerably lower for Khmer women with only 45% of women literate. Moreover, only 16% of 13 - 15 year old female's are enrolled in school, and 6% of working women are paid. This further portrays the values that women are to care for children, household and adhere to her husbands wishes. This is reflected in their behavioural attitudes of separating themselves from their husbands part of society, in which there is much hard work, socialising and travelling, opposed to their feminine life of being enclosed in a home.
Even in the political atmosphere, gender values are highly reflected in female behaviour due to the inability to gain seats and power in parliament, with only 2 out of 25 ministers being female during the 1990's, and in other parts of society, there are a miniscule 8 female judges out of 110 currently. Fortunately the Ministry of Women's Affair has set up a five year plan in order to combat both the conscious and unconscious inequality that has occurred between genders and thus impacted the behaviour in which women feel they are undervalued and unable to grow to their full potential in Cambodian society.
- Use secondary research to examine how gender affects communication in both Australia and your selected country.
All communication throughout the world is performed both verbally and non-verbally and is often ruled by gender means of control. This means that gender affects the communication that can occur between people throughout the world, and it is often interesting to undergo research on how different cultures influence different genders to communicate. The difference between Australia and Cambodia in regards to communication between genders is somewhat similar; men have an easier time communicating in both countries and gaining opportunities and claiming their view, whereas females have less opportunities and are thus under valued and under appreciated.
In Australia, the differences between gender in regards to how communication can occur is often looked at in regards to the weight issues prevalent in many Western countries. Esther D. Rothblum discovered that in a group study for San Diego State University, while only 20% of applicants were overweight, 50% saw themselves as so, the majority of whom were women, and women declared much more than men that they were self conscious about their bodies and less likely to go to social interactions due to these insecurities. Therefore gender divides communication when relating to weight issues, and often disallows effective communication to happen between females and other women or men.
Khmer parents are the dominant force within a Cambodian families structure, in which children are to adhere to parents wishes and will be treated according to their gender. Girls are to grow up to become their mothers and will be given away through marriage to someone the father accepts, whereas the boys will learn to farm and become strong, both physically and mentally. The communication that is able to occur between parents is thus affected, as girls are subject to remaining quite around her parents and not making a fuss of what is asked of them. Boys are able to speak out, though still in a respectful manner, and are able to argue to get their point across, or say what their view is on a topic, as well as being able to decline their chosen wife. Across the world, there are gender differences in family life, especially when it comes to parental expectations. Quang Duong Tran underwent research to find how communication can affect the family life in Cambodia in relation to differences in gender, focusing on education. Due to the aim to appease parents and remain obedient, especially for girls, Cambodia was ranked as having the strictest discipline of parents throughout South-East Asia. Furthermore, differences between gender in relation to school work portrays the communication struggles between parents and children, as seen with girls having more difficulty than males in the importance of getting good grades, and boys highest concerns being where they will work after school, and where they will live. Female's are unable to communicate to their parents to portray their stress, as they are expected to be obedient and quiet, and if they are being sent to school, they should be thankful. Therefore boys are able to announce their feelings through communication, and will be given less stress. However, boys are expected to find a job and a place to live after school, to support their family, something expected due to the strong tradition in Cambodia, where families are linked and sons are to look after his parents once he is able to work. As boys are expected to be strong, they must find a job that represents this, providing stress in communication between parents and child. Communication between families suffers due to the difference in gender values and what each gender is expected to behave and adhere to.
The most common forms of communication difficulties within Australia come through in the workforce, in which females are subject to less pay and fewer promotions and job opportunities than men. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, women are paid, on average, $165 less than men per week, and even less in strictly male dominated jobs. For example, machine operators who are women earn roughly $850 per week, while their male counterparts earn a hefty $1133 per week. Women are disadvantaged in the working world as they are perceived as being unable to do jobs men stereotypically excel at, though are not given the opportunity to claim their abilities as communication in the work force for women is low. In secondary schools, while 60% of teachers are female, only 36% of principals are female, thus portraying the difficulties women have in expressing themselves for higher jobs than men, due to the communication divide between men and women pertinent to Australian society. Even in primary schools, 49% of principals are male, while only 17% of teachers are male, creating a strong divide in the expectations for men being able to get messages and be in dominant forces more strongly and powerfully than women, thus portraying their ease in communication more in the Australian workforce. Furthermore, women's communication abilities are subject to level with children, and therefore women are undervalued in this sense too.
Due to gender inequalities in Cambodia, women are undervalued and it is thus harder to go to school and learn the English language. In Cambodia, 83% of males are literate, and 66% of women are literate, marking the stark difference between the two genders. Morton Beiser, from the University of Toronto, found that Cambodian women arriving in Canada after immigrating are 'far less likely than males to speak English'. As being able to speak English is a necessity for being able to gain work and relate to the Western world to integrate into society, this inability to speak English for women hugely affects their communication abilities and capability to thrive in a Western country. Furthermore, due to Canadian immigration policy, points are given for those who can speak English, and those who cannot, as many Cambodian women are unable to, will have a less likely chance of being granted a VISA or residency in Canada.
In Australian schools, male and female disabled children are seen as having communication boundaries and differences, claims Brian W. Graetz. His research has provided statistics finding that levels of ADHD among 2,404 school children are more pertinent among boys when they are participating in hyper active activities and communicating with high levels of energy and lots of children, however when low level energy activities are occurring, symptoms of ADHD are equal for both males and females. Therefore for ADHD children in Australia, it can be presumed that boys that communicate with hyperactive groups are more likely to have ADHD, whereas moderate and low levelled activities are equally likely to cause ADHD affects for males and females, thus affecting the mentality of the child brain due to gender when communicating with peers.
All communication throughout the world is performed both verbally and non-verbally and is often ruled by gender means of control. This means that gender affects the communication that can occur between people throughout the world, and it is often interesting to undergo research on how different cultures influence different genders to communicate. The difference between Australia and Cambodia in regards to communication between genders is somewhat similar; men have an easier time communicating in both countries and gaining opportunities and claiming their view, whereas females have less opportunities and are thus under valued and under appreciated.
In Australia, the differences between gender in regards to how communication can occur is often looked at in regards to the weight issues prevalent in many Western countries. Esther D. Rothblum discovered that in a group study for San Diego State University, while only 20% of applicants were overweight, 50% saw themselves as so, the majority of whom were women, and women declared much more than men that they were self conscious about their bodies and less likely to go to social interactions due to these insecurities. Therefore gender divides communication when relating to weight issues, and often disallows effective communication to happen between females and other women or men.
Khmer parents are the dominant force within a Cambodian families structure, in which children are to adhere to parents wishes and will be treated according to their gender. Girls are to grow up to become their mothers and will be given away through marriage to someone the father accepts, whereas the boys will learn to farm and become strong, both physically and mentally. The communication that is able to occur between parents is thus affected, as girls are subject to remaining quite around her parents and not making a fuss of what is asked of them. Boys are able to speak out, though still in a respectful manner, and are able to argue to get their point across, or say what their view is on a topic, as well as being able to decline their chosen wife. Across the world, there are gender differences in family life, especially when it comes to parental expectations. Quang Duong Tran underwent research to find how communication can affect the family life in Cambodia in relation to differences in gender, focusing on education. Due to the aim to appease parents and remain obedient, especially for girls, Cambodia was ranked as having the strictest discipline of parents throughout South-East Asia. Furthermore, differences between gender in relation to school work portrays the communication struggles between parents and children, as seen with girls having more difficulty than males in the importance of getting good grades, and boys highest concerns being where they will work after school, and where they will live. Female's are unable to communicate to their parents to portray their stress, as they are expected to be obedient and quiet, and if they are being sent to school, they should be thankful. Therefore boys are able to announce their feelings through communication, and will be given less stress. However, boys are expected to find a job and a place to live after school, to support their family, something expected due to the strong tradition in Cambodia, where families are linked and sons are to look after his parents once he is able to work. As boys are expected to be strong, they must find a job that represents this, providing stress in communication between parents and child. Communication between families suffers due to the difference in gender values and what each gender is expected to behave and adhere to.
The most common forms of communication difficulties within Australia come through in the workforce, in which females are subject to less pay and fewer promotions and job opportunities than men. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, women are paid, on average, $165 less than men per week, and even less in strictly male dominated jobs. For example, machine operators who are women earn roughly $850 per week, while their male counterparts earn a hefty $1133 per week. Women are disadvantaged in the working world as they are perceived as being unable to do jobs men stereotypically excel at, though are not given the opportunity to claim their abilities as communication in the work force for women is low. In secondary schools, while 60% of teachers are female, only 36% of principals are female, thus portraying the difficulties women have in expressing themselves for higher jobs than men, due to the communication divide between men and women pertinent to Australian society. Even in primary schools, 49% of principals are male, while only 17% of teachers are male, creating a strong divide in the expectations for men being able to get messages and be in dominant forces more strongly and powerfully than women, thus portraying their ease in communication more in the Australian workforce. Furthermore, women's communication abilities are subject to level with children, and therefore women are undervalued in this sense too.
Due to gender inequalities in Cambodia, women are undervalued and it is thus harder to go to school and learn the English language. In Cambodia, 83% of males are literate, and 66% of women are literate, marking the stark difference between the two genders. Morton Beiser, from the University of Toronto, found that Cambodian women arriving in Canada after immigrating are 'far less likely than males to speak English'. As being able to speak English is a necessity for being able to gain work and relate to the Western world to integrate into society, this inability to speak English for women hugely affects their communication abilities and capability to thrive in a Western country. Furthermore, due to Canadian immigration policy, points are given for those who can speak English, and those who cannot, as many Cambodian women are unable to, will have a less likely chance of being granted a VISA or residency in Canada.
In Australian schools, male and female disabled children are seen as having communication boundaries and differences, claims Brian W. Graetz. His research has provided statistics finding that levels of ADHD among 2,404 school children are more pertinent among boys when they are participating in hyper active activities and communicating with high levels of energy and lots of children, however when low level energy activities are occurring, symptoms of ADHD are equal for both males and females. Therefore for ADHD children in Australia, it can be presumed that boys that communicate with hyperactive groups are more likely to have ADHD, whereas moderate and low levelled activities are equally likely to cause ADHD affects for males and females, thus affecting the mentality of the child brain due to gender when communicating with peers.